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History
: Historical Glossary (d-h)
Davies, Samuel (1723-1761), Virginia leader of the religious
revival known as the Great Awakening. He was the first "new
side" or "new light" minister to settle permanently
in the colony. Davies attended a school at Chester, Pennsylvania.
He continued at the school because of donations from Presbyterian
dissenters in Hanover County, an act that later influenced his
decision to accept permanent appointment to that congregation.
Feeling it his duty to teach the principles of Christianity to
all who would listen, Davies brought many slaves into that congregation,
taught them to read, and purchased spelling books, catechisms,
and hymnals for their use. Davies left Hanover when he was named
President of Princeton University in 1759, a post he held until
his death in 1761.
Davies was probably a familiar figure in Williamsburg. Only a
few months after settling in Hanover, he married Jane Holt of
Williamsburg, daughter of William Holt, former mayor of the city.
Davies was careful to obtain the licenses required for dissenting
ministers and meetinghouses from the government in Williamsburg
before he began preaching. He repeatedly came to the Capitol on
this matter, which brought him into direct conflict with Peyton
Randolph, attorney general of the colony, to whom Davies reportedly
proved himself the equal in his ability to argue points of the
law regarding dissenters. Governor Gooch described Davies as "tall,
slim, well-formed . . . pale and wasted by disease, dignified
and courteous in manner."
Samuel Davies became well known for his preaching; even Patrick
Henry acknowledged Davies' influence on his own oratorical style.
De Lamerie, Paul (1688-1751), French-born silversmith.
His Huguenot family immigrated to England (see Edict of Nantes)
when Paul was less than a year old and it is doubtful that he
ever lived in France after that. His French style developed because
it was the prevalent art form of the time and because he was apprenticed
to Pierre Platel, master goldsmith, at the age of fifteen.
De Lamerie was associated with William Hogarth, who had been apprenticed
to a silversmith and engraved some outstanding pieces for De Lamerie,
including a salver for Sir Robert Walpole in 1727. De Lamerie
is credited with some of the finest and most elaborate silver
work of the eighteenth century. A number of pieces by Paul De
Lamerie can be seen at the DeWitt Wallace Decorative Arts Gallery,
including four columnar candlesticks that serve as the gallery
logo.
De Sequeyra, Dr. John (1712-1795), Williamsburg physician,
was born in London of distinguished Portuguese-Jewish parentage.
He attended the medical school at the University of Leiden in
Holland, reportedly under the leading clinician, Hermann Boerhaave,
and received his medical degree on February 3, l739. He settled
in Williamsburg in 1745.
In 1769 de Sequeyra attended George Washington's epileptic stepdaughter,
Patsy. In 1770 he was called to attend Lord Botetourt during his
fatal illness of bilious fever and St. Anthony's fire (erysipelas).
In 1773 he was selected to be the first visiting physician to
the Public Hospital for the Insane, a distinguished position that
he kept until he died in 1795. He was also a member of the Hospital's
Board of Directors from 1774 until his death.
Diderot, Denis (1713-1784), French encyclopedist. He was
also a philosopher, novelist, satirist, dramatist, and art critic
but is best known for his Encyclopédie, published
between 1751 and 1780. It was his intention to demystify preindustrial
manufacturing techniques and to elevate the worker and recognize
his importance. Jesuit-educated and a friend of Rousseau, Diderot
believed that providing documentation and information would increase
man's knowledge, broaden his experience, and in so doing further
his understanding of the world in which he lived. The idea that
artisans should be respected for their contribution to society
was loathed by the French aristocracy, and Diderot's emphasis
on material things was considered anti-Christian. Thus the encyclopedia
met with serious criticism and opposition.
Diderot's dedication to expanding public knowledge and his recognition
of the value of the ordinary worker was reflected in the egalitarian
society developing in Virginia. The importance of the common man
was central to Diderot's theme. Thomas Jefferson subscribed to
his encyclopedia and was undoubtedly sympathetic to the views
expressed and fascinated by the wealth of technical detail it
contained.
Dilettanti, Society of (1732), informal organization of
art-minded Englishmen. It was founded by Sir Francis Dashwood
and other collectors to encourage the study of classical antiquity.
Patrons, artists, and architects met to discuss and deliberate
in a convivial atmosphere. Through their financial aid, enthusiasm,
and taste, the society sponsored publications and sent expeditions
to Italy, Asia Minor, and Greece.
The ideal of the dilettanti appealed to many in a country where
the amateur tradition had deep roots. Lord Burlington was one
of those who had an interest in architecture as expressed in his
pleasure house Chiswick. One was encouraged to "be one's
own architect" and to promote an interest and understanding
of music, literature, philosophy, painting, and the other arts
to be considered a "gentleman of parts." Sir Joshua
Reynolds painted two conversation pieces at the time of Sir William
Hamilton's induction into the society that portray the intimacy
of this cultured and creative circle.
Edict of Nantes (1598), decree establishing Catholic-Protestant
coexistence in France. It granted French Protestants, the Huguenots,
full civil rights by Catholic courts. The implication of a Protestant
state within a Catholic state led Louis XIV to revoke the Edict
of Nantes in 1685. While most Huguenots remained in France and
abjured Calvinism for Catholicism, an estimated 160,000 fled France
to Geneva, Berlin, Amsterdam, and London.
This infusion of French refugees brought twenty to fifty thousand
immigrants to England, many of whom practiced specialized occupations
and crafts. French taste in fashion became more evident as refugee
wigmakers, hairdressers, bootmakers, shoemakers, perfumers, fan
makers, jewelers, furriers, and gunsmiths worked in London. French
silversmiths brought new skills and more advanced designs. They
used thicker silver with higher relief and engraved rather than
applied ornament. Huguenot cabinetmakers moved from square or
rectangular chair backs toward curvilinear backs. The English
textile industry also benefitted. French weavers were more technologically
advanced than English weavers and won fame for their pattern designs,
flowered silks, and printed calicoes. As a result of these innovations,
less linen and silk were imported from France, helping to reverse
the English-French balance of trade in favor of the English by
the 1690s. By 1700 it was said that, "the English have now
so great an esteem for the workmanship of the French refugees,
that hardly anything vends without a gallic name."
Edwards, Jonathan (1703-1758), American theologian and
philosopher. He is generally credited with stimulating the religious
revival known as the Great Awakening. He attempted to revive Puritan
idealism in a new age of science, secularism, and mercantile activity.
Rigorously schooled at home, Edwards entered Yale at age thirteen,
graduating in 1720 when he was seventeen. In 1729 Edwards was
called to the Congregational church in Northampton, Massachusetts,
which has been called the most powerful pulpit in New England.
Possessed of a fascination with nature and an extremely analytical
mind, Edwards discovered John Locke before any other American
thinker. He later used theories gleaned from Locke to support
such Calvinistic doctrines as predestination and the sovereignty
of God.
Late in 1734 Edwards was in the midst of a closely reasoned series
of sermons on the necessity of salvation. His former congregation
began to warm, leading Edwards to view dramatic conversions as
evidence of the "peculiar and immediate" manifestations
of God. "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," Edwards's
most famous sermon, presents only a fraction of the range of his
thought, for Edwards was far more concerned with God's grace than
His anger. He generally disapproved of extreme emotionalism in
religion and went so far as to rebuke George Whitefield for the
hysteria his sermons inspired.
Dismissed after conflicts with his Northampton congregation in
1750, he became a missionary to the remnants of the Mohican Indians
near Stockbridge. In 1758 he was invited to become president of
the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). A few
weeks later he died from the effects of a smallpox inoculation.
F. H. C. Society (1750), first college fraternity in British
America, founded at William and Mary. It faded from existence
during the Revolution and little is known about its early years.
Even the meaning (presumably Latin) of the letters "F.H.C."
remains a mystery. The first reference to the society as the "Flat
Hat Club" may date from the late nineteenth century, although
it might reflect a contemporary nickname for the society. Surviving
fraternity medals, a certificate of membership, and correspondence
among members indicate that the objectives of the society included
friendship, conviviality, charity, and science. Over the years
members included Thomas Jefferson, John Page, Warner Lewis, Beverley
Randolph, James Innes, and St. George Tucker.
Fielding, Henry (1707-1755), English novelist. He began
his literary career as a less than successful dramatist. In 1737
laws restricting the number of theaters led Fielding to an alternative
career as a lawyer, and he eventually became London's first police
magistrate. Tom Jones, which is considered one of the finest
comic novels of the eighteenth century, was written during the
period when Fielding faced large debts and death of his wife and
child. His novels are peopled with young men who relish the pleasures
of life; through them Fielding exposed his belief in the innate
goodness of man. He used satire to poke fun at the hypocrisy he
perceived in society, an effort in which he was joined by his
good friend William Hogarth. Tom Jones was included in
the libraries of Lord Botetourt, Robert Carter, George Washington,
Thomas Jefferson, and St. George Tucker.
Fox, George (1624-1691), English founder of the Society
of Friends. In 1646 he underwent a mystical experience that convinced
him that Christianity was an inner light by which Christ directly
illumines the believing soul. Fox began preaching in 1647 and
soon attracted a considerable following. Commonly called Quakers
from the spiritual "trembling" experienced during meetings,
his followers refused to take oaths or bear arms. They wanted
to be free of all outward authorities, including ordained priests
and ministers. Fox subscribed to the Reformation idea of a universal
priesthood of all believers--the assumption that all men were
potentially near enough to God to be their own priests. Quaker
missionaries met with persecution and imprisonment on most of
their travels. In America Quakerism was most prevalent in New
England.
From 1671 to 1672 Fox and William Edmundson, an important Quaker
missionary, traveled in Virginia. Edmundson actually met with
Governor Berkeley in order to speak to him about Friends' sufferings.
Edmundson found Berkeley "peevish and brittle" and departed
the meeting having made no progress in persuading the governor
to be kind to Quakers in Virginia. While in America, Fox greatly
strengthened the Quaker organization in the colonies, though they
continued to meet with varying degrees of harassment in the southern
colonies.
Garrick, David (1717-1779), English actor. He is credited
with developing a more naturalistic style of acting, moving away
from the stylized practices in vogue earlier in the century.
In 1747 he became a partner in the Drury Lane Theatre at Covent
Garden and managed many of the productions. Garrick was credited
with forbidding patrons from sitting on the stage itself because
it was evident they cared more about being seen than seeing the
play. He also influenced the development of more sophisticated
set designs. Garrick also directed plays, wrote several, and by
his death had amassed a fortune that has been estimated at £10,000.
Geminiani, Francesco (1689-1762), eminent Italian violinist.
His violin treatise of 1751 The Art of Playing on the Violin,
has special significance for the tradition of domestic music in
eighteenth-century Virginia. The predominance of the violin as
the most popular instrument for the gentleman amateur during the
period is well documented. Thomas Jefferson, John Randolph, and
Patrick Henry all played the violin; in fact, Jefferson had a
copy of Geminiani's influential Opus IX treatise in his private
music library.
Geminiani's work was a continuation of a long succession of instruction
books for the violin. From 1658 to 1731 there were thirty such
works printed in England. Geminiani's Art, however, departs
from the earlier violin treatises in its thoroughness. His treatise
sets down the performance techniques of the classical, or Roman,
violin school as established by Archangelo Corelli in the late
seventeenth century.
Glorious Revolution (1688), period of English history when
Catholic King James II was replaced by William III and Mary. William
of Orange was a nephew of James II; Mary was his daughter and
a niece of Charles II. They were invited to assume the throne
by a group of influential noblemen. Unlike James, who believed
in divine right of kings, William and Mary shared the duties and
responsibilities of governance with Parliament. When the crown
was offered to William and Mary, their assent to a Declaration
of Rights was secured. The Declaration asserted that it was illegal
to suspend laws, collect taxes, maintain a standing Army without
consent of Parliament, interfere with Parliamentary elections,
tamper with juries, or impose excessive fines. Parliament turned
the agreement into a Bill of Rights with two additional provisions:
No Catholic could succeed to the crown and succession thereafter
would be the children of William and Mary, then those of Anne,
Mary's younger sister, and finally the children of William if
he should marry again.
Goldsmith, Oliver (1730-1774), English writer. He was educated
to pursue a career in the medical field and ultimately became
one of England's most versatile authors. Goldsmith began writing
essays and humorous sketches for British periodicals to improve
his financial situation. His association with publisher John Newbery
opened the door to a lasting friendship with Dr. Samuel Johnson,
and Goldsmith became an important figure in the London literary
scene. He could justifiably boast of his success in writing fiction
(The Vicar of Wakefield, 1766), poetry (The Deserted
Village, 1770), and drama (She Stoops to Conquer, 1774),
yet he constantly worried about how his works would be received
by the British public. Thomas Jefferson considered The Vicar
of Wakefield one of his favorite novels, and it was also listed
in the library of George Washington.
Great Awakening, religious revivalism that occurred in
the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The movement was
a repudiation of Enlightenment rationalism, an antidote to religious
complacence in established churches in the colonies, and a change
from the formalism of Anglican liturgy.
The Great Awakening is commonly held to have started in 1734 when
Jonathan Edwards, jarred his congregation out of its apathy and
into a frenzy of repentance of sin and rejoicing in salvation.
The revival sparked hundreds of conversions. As news of this revival
spread, so did its effects. Evangelist George Whitefield, travelling
in America in 1739, added momentum to the spread of revivalism.
His spellbinding sermons attracted large crowds as he journeyed
from New England to Georgia.
Established churches like the Anglican church in Virginia were
largely gentry dominated. The evangelical message that all men
are equal in the eyes of God attracted slaves and poor whites
by the thousands. There was a proliferation of unschooled "New
Light" itinerants -- including some blacks and women -- whose
only credential was a call from God to preach to anyone who would
listen, in the open air if necessary.
A legacy of the Great Awakening was continued expansion of evangelical
churches and increasing demand for, first, toleration of religious
views outside those sanctioned by the established churches, and
then full freedom of religion in America. Agitation for this right
went hand in hand with the revolutionary thought developing in
the political arena leading up to the American Revolution.
Gregorian Calendar (1582), current calendar replacing the
Julian calendar. In addition to new rules governing leap years,
Pope Gregory XIII decreed that ten days be dropped from the year
1582 by designating October 5 as October 15 in order to correct
inaccuracies in the Julian calendar. Although the Gregorian calendar
(New Style) was technically superior, it was impossible for England
(still embroiled in the intellectual and religious trauma of the
Protestant Reformation) to accept a new calendar devised by the
Catholic pope and adopted under the auspices of the Roman Church.
England clung to the Julian (Old Style) calendar for another 170
years with the result that after 1582, English dates were ten
days behind those used by other European countries.
The English calendar for much of the colonial period was further
complicated by an anomaly that developed in medieval England when
the clergy began dating the new year from the Feast of the Annunciation--or
Lady Day as the English styled it--March 25, making the last few
days of March the first few days of the new year; that is, the
dates January 1 through March 24 were still part of the previous
year in England but part of the new year in the rest of Europe.
Thus dates between January 1 and March 24 often appear in colonial
documents with both Old Style and New Style years separated by
a slash (for example, February 18, 1701/2) though not everyone
in England and the colonies used this convention.
An end was put to these confusions when a bill for the adoption
of the Gregorian calendar passed Parliament. The act went into
effect September 3, 1752 which was designated September 14 to
correct for the now eleven-day difference that had accumulated
between the old and new calendars. It also transferred the beginning
of the new year in England from March 25 to January 1 starting
in 1753.
Griffin, The Reverend Charles (fl. 1715-1720), English
missionary among the Indians. In 1715 he was hired and paid by
Lieutenant Governor Spotswood to teach at the school at Fort Christanna
in Brunswick County. His personality, skills, and dedication made
him very popular with the Indians, and he created a thriving school
with as many as seventy-five students at times. Later Griffin
was called upon to be master of the Indian school at the College
of William and Mary.
Handel, George Frideric (1685-1759), German-born composer.
He became kapellmeister to the Elector of Hanover in 1710 and
later that year made his first visit to England. Handel returned
again in 1712 and took up permanent residence in 1714 when the
Elector, now George I, ascended the English throne. In his early
years in England he wrote and produced many Italian operas. In
1717 he wrote the popular Acis and Glatea, music of which
was owned by many in Virginia. With John Gay's The Beggar's
Opera in 1728 there was a decline in the popularity of Italian
opera. Handel finally abandoned the form in 1741 and focused on
the oratorio. He wrote and produced Messiah in Dublin in
1742. It was well received in England as well as in Ireland and
he continued composing in this popular form until his death.
Hepplewhite, George (?-d.1786), English cabinetmaker and
designer. Biographical information about Hepplewhite is exceedingly
meager. He is known to have served an apprenticeship in Lancaster
and later to have conducted a business in London. In 1788 The
Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Guide was published. No claim
was made for originality in the Guide. These designs were
not the creation of any one particular person, but represented
collectively the prevailing taste at that time. Consequently the
name Hepplewhite is accepted as expressing the current fashion
rather than the works of Hepplewhite. In fact, there has never
been a single piece of furniture that could be directly attributed
to Hepplewhite. The Guide gave a fine interpretation of
Adam's style and adapted that style for the use of the cabinetmaker.
Hogarth, William (1697-1764), English painter and engraver.
He took great pride in being a native English artist in a sea
of foreign competitors. He began his career as a silver engraver
in 1713 but found the craft too tedious and restrictive on his
imagination. Hogarth also worked as a book illustrator until his
thirties, when he was able to establish himself as an independent
artist. Founder of the Second St. Martin's Lane Academy, Hogarth
held the radical belief that artists should not look to the work
of other artists for inspiration but to nature itself.
Hogarth's popularity, during both the eighteenth century and today,
resulted not only from his great accomplishments as a painter
but also from his extraordinary printmaking skills. His images
were directed toward wide audiences and their compositions reflected
the ideals of a social reformer, which are best seen in his "modern
moral subjects." The artist was the instigator of the Engravers'
Copyright Act of 1735. His theoretical work The Analysis of
Beauty was published the same year. Some of Hogarth's famous
works include The Harlot's Progress (1732), The Rake's
Progress (1735), Before and After (1736), Marriage
a la Mode (1745), and Industry and Idleness (1747).
Hopkinson, Francis (1737-1791), Philadelphia-born lawyer,
statesman, writer, composer, and signer of the Declaration of
Independence. He wrote the first piece of music by a native-born
American, "Ode to Music," in 1754 and the first original
American song, "My Days have been so Wondrous Free,"
in 1759. Both Thomas Jefferson and George Washington owned copies
of Hopkinson's music. In 1788 Hopkinson composed a set of songs
dedicated to George Washington.
Houghton (1722-1735), great country house in Norfolk, England,
of Sir Robert Walpole. It was designed by Colen Campbell, who
illustrated it in Vitruvius Brittanicus. The house is Palladian
as interpreted from Inigo Jones's designs for Wilton and the Queen's
House at Greenwich. Houghton was one of the "power houses"
built from the 1720s to the 1740s.
Many influential artisans and designers of the period worked at
Houghton. Architect James Gibbs altered Campbell's plan for the
four corner towers, adding domes. William Kent, Master Carpenter
of the Board of Works, was commissioned in 1727 to do the interior
design and decoration that was one of the most elaborate in England.
Newly introduced mahogany was used for the stair balustrade, doors,
and window shutters. John Michael Rysbrack (1693?-1770) provided
stone work ornament and sculpture. Kent himself painted the murals.
No expense was spared on the furnishings. Hundreds of yards of
green silk velvet were woven to cover the walls of two rooms,
to upholster over ninety chairs, and to hang the state bed designed
by Kent. The bed's gold trimmings alone cost over £1,200!
Architects were the influential tastemakers of the late baroque
period; consequently, furnishings have strong architectural overtones.
Kent's ponderous style relies heavily on scallop shell and eagle
motifs. His furniture pieces look best in the rooms for which
they were designed and seem out of context when moved to other
interiors.
Walpole fell from power in 1742 and died impoverished from building
Houghton. His heirs were forced to sell the great picture collection
in the house to Empress Catherine of Russia in 1779. Today Houghton
is the seat of the marquess of Cholmondeley, whose family has
restored much of its original splendor.
Hume, David (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian.
He was extremely influential in British, German, and American
philosophy and in the history of modern metaphysical thinking.
Hume believed that there is no knowledge a priori (through reason)
but that cause and effect are discovered by experience; all ideas
come from impressions. Hume's skepticism led him to believe that
the mind can have distinct impressions of distinct facts but that
neither substance nor cause and effect can be verified; they can
only be inferred on the basis of perceived probability. It followed
that the laws we make are based on past experience and have nothing
to do with the future. Hume presented the Christian faith with
one of the greatest philosophical challenges it has ever faced.
Though he did not openly deny the reality of God's existence,
perfection, miracles, and providence, he did question whether
belief in such things can be grounded in human experience and
reason. His questions of "what we know" and "how
we know" raised doubts that have remained the subject of
lively controversy.
Hume's Treatise of Human Nature (1734-1740) was written
while he was studying in France and was subsequently published
in England. He later wrote An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
(1748) as well as a history of England and other philosophical
treatises.
Hutcheson, Francis (1694-1746), Irish-born philosopher.
He was educated in Ireland and Scotland and in 1729 was elected
to the chair of moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow.
His work and teaching methods were a powerful stimulation to the
spirit of inquiry in Scotland. William Small introduced Hutcheson's
techniques at the College of William and Mary where they had a
profound influence on Thomas Jefferson.
Hutcheson's first work, An Inquiry into the Original of our
Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725), established meaning for
man's moral sense, a theme that dominated the Scottish Enlightenment
and spread quickly to America and the Continent. He developed
an entirely original approach to the problem of motivating man
toward one another rather than by animal gratification. His starting
point was aesthetics. He argued that one of the pleasures motivating
man was his delight in order and harmony. This delight is as real
as any pleasure of the senses yet is not limited to them. He called
this the "internal sense." It is an appetite, though
not a predatory one because humans like to see their delight in
evidences of cosmic order extended to others. We reenact this
order in our own lives, which explains the civilizing effect of
the arts and the formation of graceful and delicate habits.
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Historic Triangle