Back to www.history.org
This week: Framing the Constitution
The Constitution was penned more than 220 years ago, but it remains relevant because it was designed to evolve with the people it governs. Share your thoughts with us this week as we examine the document that delivered on the promises of the Declaration of Independence. More about the Constitution
The Articles of Confederation
After the colonies declared their independence from English rule, they had to come up with a way to govern themselves. During the Revolution, the states were organized under the Articles of Confederation, but this stopgap government proved impractical by the end of the war.
The Constitution
The 5th Virginia Convention met in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation, but what they came away with was the Constitution: a manifesto in seven sections that has provided the DNA for American democracy. The Constitution creates three branches of government and outlines their complimentary powers. It defines the rights of states and individuals, establishes procedures for defense and taxation, and the rights of accused criminals. These provisions and many others answered the preamble's promises of union, justice, domestic tranquility, common defense, general welfare, and the blessings of liberty.
The Bill of Rights and Subsequent Amendments
Though it is the backbone of today's American government, not everyone agreed with the Constitution when it was written. The document the delegates had signed was a compromise at best, and one they knew that the coming years would demand changes to. The Constitution's saving grace came in Article five, which gives Congress a process for changing its mind via a constitutional amendment.
The first 10 amendments are known as the Bill of Rights, and they enumerate citizens' most basic rights. Subsequent amendments have ended slavery, extended the right to vote, and established and repealed prohibition. The Constitution's ability to adapt in every century has made America a living democracy. What change will be next?
Discussion Question: Framing the Constitution
Getting It Right
What problems did the Constitution solve and what problems did it create for future generations? Professor Carol Berkin and Justice Kennedy discuss. 2:43
When are constitutional amendments necessary?
Thomas Jefferson wrote, "Laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind." Sometimes, changes in our ethical views compel us to amend our Constitution.
Discuss topic on
Resources: Framing the Constitution
Drama
-
"Bill of Rights" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
In this dramatic reenactment of the Constitutional Convention, George Mason makes his case for the inclusion of individual rights. 4:20
-
"Past & Present Vodcast" Constitution Day
This mini-documentary examines the tensions between delegates as they secretly drafted the new United States Constitution. 4:46
Points of View
-
The Articles of Confederation
Historians Carol Berkin and Gordon Wood explain how the Articles of Confederation were suited for the Revolution but not for a lasting government. 2:56
-
Shays' Rebellion Forced the Issue
George Washington praises the Constitution as a work of compromise. 0:25
-
A Balancing Act
Signer Elbridge Gerry notes that the Constitution strikes a balance between the national government and the state governments. 0:29
-
"Remember the Ladies"
Abigail Adams implores John Adams to "remember the ladies" as he and the Founders create a new nation. 1:06
-
Responsibilities Of Citizens
Historian Gordon Wood, retired associate justice Sandra Day O'Connor, and journalist Jim Lehrer discuss the responsibilities of citizenship. 8:40
-
What Are We?
Did the United States begin as a republic or a democracy? Historians Carol Berkin and Gordon Wood explain the difference. 0:45
Podcasts
-
The Bill of Rights
Do you know your rights? Professor of Law Henry Chambers explains the lasting wisdom of the Constitution's first 10 amendments.
-
Constitution Day
Get to know the Constitution: a document whose genius lies in its malleability. Historian and author Pauline Maier talks ratification.
-
We the People
America's Constitution stands as a monument to compromise.
History articles
-
Articles of Confederation
A governing document of the new nation, the Articles gave Congress power, but no way to enforce its requests.
-
United States Constitution
The work of 55 men, this founding document laid the groundwork for a new system of government.
-
Amendments to the United States Constitution
Explore the amendments to the United States Constitution. Can you memorize all 27?
Journal articles
-
Debating the Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights, so fundamental to the Idea of America, was quite controversial when written. Learn why it was under debate.
-
An Accidental Republic?
Did the Founders create a "republican form of government," or were they striving to make something different?
Books
-
America's Beginnings: The Dramatic Events That Shaped a Nation's Character
From the Lost Colony to the Bill of Rights, here are fifty dramatic events that shaped our nation's character.
Buy now -
Chapter 45: Shays' Rebellion
Economic depression sparks Massachusetts farmers to rebel and reveals the weakness of the Federal Government to respond.
-
Chapter 46: Constitutional Convention
The Great Compromise between the Virginia and New Jersey Plans gives birth to the Constitution.
-
Chapter 47: Ratifying Conventions
Federalists and Anti-Federalists engage in a war of words over the proposed Constitution.
-
Chapter 48: The Federalist
Writings by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay defend the Constitution against Anti-Federalist charges.
-
Chapter 50: The Bill of Rights
Initially opposed by some Founders, these Amendments guard against abuses in power by the Federal Government.
-
We Hold These Truths . . . and Other Words That Made America
"An entertaining and educational romp through Revolutionary history."
Buy now -
Chapter 8: Perfect Work, Imperfect Man
Alexander Hamilton's impact on the Early Republic was substantial, yet where some saw genius, others saw a tyrant.
-
Chapter 11: A Little Rebellion
Thomas Jefferson viewed the spirit of resistance as valuable to government; his opponents labeled him an anarchist.
-
Chapter 14 Excerpt: If Men Were Angels
In the Federalist papers, Madison argues that factions within government can help rather than hurt it.
-
Chapter 14 Excerpt: Congress Shall Make No Law
Although most Federalists opposed the Bill of Rights, Madison campaigned in 1789 on a platform of including these Amendments.
-
Chapter 24 Excerpt: We the People
One of only six to sign the Declaration and the Constitution, Wilson may have written the Preamble.
iCitizenForum links
Interactive
-
Mr. Jefferson's Magical Maze
-
George Washington Interactive Portrait
Explore Charles Willson Peale's famous portrait. Learn the meaning behind items.
-
Name that Founding Father
Put your knowledge to the test - play the game where you try to identify four famous founding fathers based on clues from history.
-
The Constitution Colonial Word Search
Week 2: A Right to Own Slaves
The founding fathers sacrificed the freedom of African Americans for the sake of the unity of the nation when they kept slavery in the Constitution. This week we'll discuss slavery's lingering legacy. Slavery in the Constitution
Slavery in the Constitution
Article 1, Section 9: The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
Discussion Question: A Right to Own Slaves
From Property to Freedom
Historians Harvey Bakari and Ed Ayers discuss the evolving relationship between the American government and African Americans. 2:06
Should affirmative action programs be discontinued?
Affirmative action can restrict our individual freedom to do business with, hire, or accept whomever we choose in order to ensure more equality for disadvantaged groups.
Discuss topic on
Resources: A Right to Own Slaves
Drama
-
"The Slave Trade" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
In 1808, a Quaker, a merchant, and a ship's captain express their views on abolishing the slave trade. 3:36
-
"When Freedom Came" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
The 13th amendment is foreshadowed in this dramatic portrayal of a reading of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. 2:52
-
"No Master Over Me" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
This dramatic scene focuses on an Indiana couple as they consider the future promised by the 15th amendment. 4:29
Points of View
-
The Irony of Slavery
Dr. Rex Ellis talks about the irony of the Founders protesting their slavery to Great Britain, while owning slaves themselves. 1:24
-
"With virtue on thy side"
Although rare for a slave girl, Phyllis Wheatley learned how to read and write, eventually becoming a published poet. 0:52
-
40 Acres and a Mule?
Dr. Ed Ayers discusses the various results for African Americans after the abrupt end of slavery during the Civil War. 1:36
-
"Our Greatest Danger"
Booker T. Washington stresses the importance of African Americans pursuing intellectual and physical opportunities for work during Reconstruction. 1:17
-
A Bit of Jim Crow
Christy Coleman and Dr. Ed Ayers describe the evolution of early Jim Crow laws and segregation. 1:51
-
"We mean real education"
W.E.B. DuBois demands equal education for blacks and stresses the importance of obtaining the right to vote. 1:25
-
The Only Appeal
Marcus Garvey emphasizes the importance of using force when striving for equality. 0:53
-
The Court of Correction
Justice Sandra Day O'Connor talks about the evolution of court rulings on racial segregation. 3:02
-
The Whole Notion of Hope
Jihad Abdulmummit talks about Brown vs. Board of Education and the hope it gave toward a more equal future. 0:57
Podcasts
-
A Slave's Perspective
Independence was a promise extended to landed white men only. Historic interpreter Hope Smith lays out a slave's perspective on freedom.
-
In Their Own Words
Old sources give fresh voice to slavery's story. Manager of African American programs Tricia Brooks explains how we know what we know.
-
No Master Over Me
A man purchases his enslaved family to set them free. James Ingram shares the tale.
-
Harvey Bakari on Independence for African Americans
Independence was not guaranteed for everyone in the nation's early days.
History articles
-
Introduction to Colonial African American Life
Dig deeper into the everyday details of Williamsburg's African American population.
-
The African American Family
Bonds were fragile, since blacks were denied legal marriage, and members were separated when owners sold and traded parents and children.
Journal articles
-
Slave Conspiracies in Colonial Virginia
When slave uprisings shook the white population, the backlash was stricter laws and harsher punishments.
-
"In Mind and Heart" with the Enslaved of Yesteryear
African American Interpreter Wali Brandon describes the importance of moving beyond an intellectual appreciation of slavery to an emotional understanding.
Wallpaper
Screensavers
Week 3: Freedom of Religion
The first amendment sets guidelines for the separation of church and state, but the lines between God and government sometimes blur. Join us all week as we consider our country's religious roots and their place today. Read the First Amendment
The First Amendment of the Bill of Rights
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
Discussion Question: Freedom of Religion
In God We Trust
Colonial ministers Mayhew and Rush discuss the importance of a Christian government and nation. 2:28
Are we a Christian nation?
As a symbol of unity, our founders' Christian heritage exists in our Constitution but an increasingly diverse population expands America's religious philosophies and changes how we view our history.
Discuss topic on
Resources: Freedom of Religion
Drama
-
Gospel of Liberty: Part 1 "Without Question"
Thomas Jefferson explains the religious climate of Virginia in the 1830s under the established Church of England. 6:13
-
Gospel of Liberty: Part 2 "The Great Awakening"
The evangelical movement begins in Virginia with a visit from the fiery George Whitefield. Young Patrick Henry's family is profoundly affected. 10:53
-
Gospel of Liberty: Part 3 "A License to Preach"
Samuel Davies, the great New Light preacher, challenges Virginia's establishment. 8:23
-
The Gospel of Liberty: Part 4 "The Good of Souls"
Samuel Davies continues his spiritual work and funnels his energies into patriotic causes for the colony of Virginia. 9:28
Podcasts
-
Thomas Jefferson on Religion
Thomas Jefferson's policy on religioius freedom rests on one ageless axiom: do unto others. Interpreter Bill Barker expounds.
-
Patrick Henry on Religion
Patrick Henry's passionate beliefs come alive through Richard Schumann's interpretation.
-
Thomas Jefferson vs. Patrick Henry
Bill Barker as Thomas Jefferson and Richard Schumann as Patrick Henry continue their debate on the role of religion in government.
History articles
-
Statute for Religious Freedom
Thomas Jefferson's Act for Establishing Religious Freedom first appeared in the form of a 1779 Williamsburg broadside.
-
Religion and Revolution
Some of the earliest dissent over England's established authority happened in religion's realm.
-
Religion in Early Virginia
The Virginia colony was not the bastion of religious freedom that later colonies became.
Journal articles
-
Deism
The question is still debated today: Was the United States ordained by Bible-believing Christians or Bible-doubting deists?
-
"The country wherein it hath pleased the divine providence to appoint our lot."
Learn about High Holy Day customs practiced by Jewish families during the early days of the colonies.
Week 4: The Courts
It falls to the courts to make the consequences of the law real. The right to jury trial brings with it the responsibility of jury service: a duty little used and less enjoyed. Join the discussion this week on the diminishing use of a function the founders thought was essential to democracy. More about the courts in the Constitution
Amendments 4
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Amendment 5
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
Amendment 6
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
Amendment 7
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re- examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Amendment 8 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
Amendment 8
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
Discussion Question: The Courts
Citizen, Know Thyself
Justices O'Connor and Kennedy talk about the relevance of the Constitution and the importance of understanding our system of government. 1:35
Is it fair to require citizens to serve on juries?
The Constitution guarantees the right to trial by jury, but not every American finds it convenient to serve. Often the personal demands of work and family are stronger than the duties of serving the common good.
Discuss topic on
Resources: The Courts
Drama
-
"The Rights of Youth" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
A young colonial boy accidentally shoots his friend. What will the court decide? 7:16
-
"For Ready Money" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
Although she cannot testify in court, an enslaved woman's account book provides crucial evidence. 1:14
Points of View
-
Government Trust
Justice Kennedy talks about how democracy depends on citizens' continued participation. 1:43
-
Marshall's Law
Justice O'Connor discusses the decisions made by Chief Justice John Marshall that affect the role of the judicial branch even today. 1:53
-
A Supreme Case
Justice O'Connor discusses how cases advance to the Supreme Court. 1:09
-
Getting Heard
Not all petitions are accepted by the Supreme Court. Justice O'Connor explains how the court decides which cases to hear. 2:49
-
Dissent Among Justices
Justice Kennedy elaborates on the process and importance of writing both majority and dissenting opinions. 2:02
-
Creating the Court
Justice O'Connor discusses the role of judicial branch in maintaining the balance of power in government. 1:22
-
I Am The Law
Justice Kennedy believes that America, though a diverse nation, is defined by the Constitution and our legal system. 0:57
-
Swaying the Court
Andrea Mitchell describes how the judiciary underwent a conservative transformation during Regan's presidency. 1:10
History articles
Journal articles
-
Cruel and Unusual
Prisons were often the first public buildings built in the colonies, but their function was very different than from today.
-
All That is Substantial and Beneficial in a Trial By Jury
Many of the grievances listed in the Declaration concern Great Britain's disregard for the traditional justice system.
-
A Man of Firmness
An early member of the often forgotten judicial branch, John Blair helped shape American laws from the bench. Justice John Blair and the Letter of the Law
-
"The Monstrous Absurdity"
Was Lord Dunmore justified in taking the gunpowder from the magazine due to rumors of slave revolt? Many colonists disagreed.
Week 5: Assemble and Petition
From civil rights to prohibition, citizens have used their right to assemble and petition to demand that the country's laws change to keep pace with its ethics. This week we're thinking about the vital right to protest, and the risks of challenging the law. Read the First Amendment
The First Amendment of the Bill of Rights
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
Discussion Question: Assemble and Petition
Civil Disobedience
Justice Kennedy and Christy Coleman offer differing opinions on the value of protest. 2:29
When should citizens break the law to demand change?
Sometimes laws violate our core ethical beliefs. Since citizenship means taking an active role in self-government, some citizens have risked arrest to protest unfair policies.
Discuss topic on
Resources: Assemble and Petition
Documentary
-
The Protest Tradition
Our nation began in protest with the Declaration of Independence. See how protest has been a part of our history. 3:20
-
The Civil Rights Movement
Civil Rights activists used a variety of protest techniques to battle inequality. 4:58
-
Suffragette
This clip shows how 1920s women not only won the right to vote but were also influential in the prohibition movement. 0:50
Points of View
-
We Can't Help Ourselves
Historian Gordon Wood suggests that the American electoral system serves as a release for pent up political rage. 1:21
-
Gabriel Prosser's Failure
Associate Professor Phillip Hamilton describes how not all protests are successful, but they often serve as foundations for future change. 2:23
-
Engines of Change
Historian Carol Berkin comments on the unique political climate of America and its tolerance for protest. 1:09
-
Purposing Protest
Historian James McPherson describes the cycle of protest in American history from against immigrants to against discrimination. 1:49
-
Barbara Johns
Dr. Ed Ayers tells the story of a young girl who protested inequality in local schools and set an example for Brown v. Board of Education. 1:43
-
The Courage of Getting Up
Dr. Rex Ellis and Jihad Abdulmummit talk about nonviolent tactics of the Civil Rights movement. 2:15
-
Native American Unrest
Chickahominy Indian Chief Adkins describes a Native American response to political involvements from the 17th century to today. 2:24
-
The Media Watch
Andrea Mitchell talks about the hazards of covering protests as a reporter. 2:39
-
Valuing Protest
Dr. Rex Ellis discusses how protests bring different opinions into the open and can foster a better informed citizenry. 1:15
History articles
Journal articles
-
Upon Paine of Death
In the colonies, there were many ways to break the law and a variety punishments for doing so.
-
A Patriot, a Traitor, and a Bill of Attainder
A bill of attainder, a legislative method for assigning guilt outside of the judicial process, had a long history but was outlawed in the United States.
Upcoming Webcasts
Archived Webcasts
September 22, 2011
American Ideas: Framing the Constitution
Live interactive webcast: Cathy Lewis, host; George Washington and James Madison discuss creation of the Constitution and intent of the founders.
October 5, 2011
American Ideas: Freedom of Religion
Live interactive webcast: Cathy Lewis, host; Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry discuss freedom of religion and its role in government.
October 18, 2011
American Ideas: Assemble and Petition
Live interactive webcast: Cathy Lewis, host; patriot Patrick Henry and law professor Henry Chambers discuss the role of protest in America.
Visit this section to see all of this topic's resources to date.
Documentary
-
The Protest Tradition
Our nation began in protest with the Declaration of Independence. See how protest has been a part of our history. 3:20
-
The Civil Rights Movement
Civil Rights activists used a variety of protest techniques to battle inequality. 4:58
-
Suffragette
This clip shows how 1920s women not only won the right to vote but were also influential in the prohibition movement. 0:50
Drama
-
"Bill of Rights" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
In this dramatic reenactment of the Constitutional Convention, George Mason makes his case for the inclusion of individual rights. 4:20
-
"Past & Present Vodcast" Constitution Day
This mini-documentary examines the tensions between delegates as they secretly drafted the new United States Constitution. 4:46
-
"The Slave Trade" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
In 1808, a Quaker, a merchant, and a ship's captain express their views on abolishing the slave trade. 3:36
-
"When Freedom Came" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
The 13th amendment is foreshadowed in this dramatic portrayal of a reading of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. 2:52
-
"No Master Over Me" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
This dramatic scene focuses on an Indiana couple as they consider the future promised by the 15th amendment. 4:29
-
Gospel of Liberty: Part 1 "Without Question"
Thomas Jefferson explains the religious climate of Virginia in the 1830s under the established Church of England. 6:13
-
Gospel of Liberty: Part 2 "The Great Awakening"
The evangelical movement begins in Virginia with a visit from the fiery George Whitefield. Young Patrick Henry's family is profoundly affected. 10:53
-
Gospel of Liberty: Part 3 "A License to Preach"
Samuel Davies, the great New Light preacher, challenges Virginia's establishment. 8:23
-
The Gospel of Liberty: Part 4 "The Good of Souls"
Samuel Davies continues his spiritual work and funnels his energies into patriotic causes for the colony of Virginia. 9:28
-
"The Rights of Youth" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
A young colonial boy accidentally shoots his friend. What will the court decide? 7:16
-
"For Ready Money" Electronic Field Trip excerpt
Although she cannot testify in court, an enslaved woman's account book provides crucial evidence. 1:14
Points of View
-
The Articles of Confederation
Historians Carol Berkin and Gordon Wood explain how the Articles of Confederation were suited for the Revolution but not for a lasting government. 2:56
-
Shays' Rebellion Forced the Issue
George Washington praises the Constitution as a work of compromise. 0:25
-
A Balancing Act
Signer Elbridge Gerry notes that the Constitution strikes a balance between the national government and the state governments. 0:29
-
"Remember the Ladies"
Abigail Adams implores John Adams to "remember the ladies" as he and the Founders create a new nation. 1:06
-
Responsibilities Of Citizens
Historian Gordon Wood, retired associate justice Sandra Day O'Connor, and journalist Jim Lehrer discuss the responsibilities of citizenship. 8:40
-
What Are We?
Did the United States begin as a republic or a democracy? Historians Carol Berkin and Gordon Wood explain the difference. 0:45
-
The Irony of Slavery
Dr. Rex Ellis talks about the irony of the Founders protesting their slavery to Great Britain, while owning slaves themselves. 1:24
-
"With virtue on thy side"
Although rare for a slave girl, Phyllis Wheatley learned how to read and write, eventually becoming a published poet. 0:52
-
40 Acres and a Mule?
Dr. Ed Ayers discusses the various results for African Americans after the abrupt end of slavery during the Civil War. 1:36
-
"Our Greatest Danger"
Booker T. Washington stresses the importance of African Americans pursuing intellectual and physical opportunities for work during Reconstruction. 1:17
-
A Bit of Jim Crow
Christy Coleman and Dr. Ed Ayers describe the evolution of early Jim Crow laws and segregation. 1:51
-
"We mean real education"
W.E.B. DuBois demands equal education for blacks and stresses the importance of obtaining the right to vote. 1:25
-
The Only Appeal
Marcus Garvey emphasizes the importance of using force when striving for equality. 0:53
-
The Court of Correction
Justice Sandra Day O'Connor talks about the evolution of court rulings on racial segregation. 3:02
-
The Whole Notion of Hope
Jihad Abdulmummit talks about Brown vs. Board of Education and the hope it gave toward a more equal future. 0:57
-
Government Trust
Justice Kennedy talks about how democracy depends on citizens' continued participation. 1:43
-
Marshall's Law
Justice O'Connor discusses the decisions made by Chief Justice John Marshall that affect the role of the judicial branch even today. 1:53
-
A Supreme Case
Justice O'Connor discusses how cases advance to the Supreme Court. 1:09
-
Getting Heard
Not all petitions are accepted by the Supreme Court. Justice O'Connor explains how the court decides which cases to hear. 2:49
-
Dissent Among Justices
Justice Kennedy elaborates on the process and importance of writing both majority and dissenting opinions. 2:02
-
Creating the Court
Justice O'Connor discusses the role of judicial branch in maintaining the balance of power in government. 1:22
-
I Am The Law
Justice Kennedy believes that America, though a diverse nation, is defined by the Constitution and our legal system. 0:57
-
Swaying the Court
Andrea Mitchell describes how the judiciary underwent a conservative transformation during Regan's presidency. 1:10
-
We Can't Help Ourselves
Historian Gordon Wood suggests that the American electoral system serves as a release for pent up political rage. 1:21
-
Gabriel Prosser's Failure
Associate Professor Phillip Hamilton describes how not all protests are successful, but they often serve as foundations for future change. 2:23
-
Engines of Change
Historian Carol Berkin comments on the unique political climate of America and its tolerance for protest. 1:09
-
Purposing Protest
Historian James McPherson describes the cycle of protest in American history from against immigrants to against discrimination. 1:49
-
Barbara Johns
Dr. Ed Ayers tells the story of a young girl who protested inequality in local schools and set an example for Brown v. Board of Education. 1:43
-
The Courage of Getting Up
Dr. Rex Ellis and Jihad Abdulmummit talk about nonviolent tactics of the Civil Rights movement. 2:15
-
Native American Unrest
Chickahominy Indian Chief Adkins describes a Native American response to political involvements from the 17th century to today. 2:24
-
The Media Watch
Andrea Mitchell talks about the hazards of covering protests as a reporter. 2:39
-
Valuing Protest
Dr. Rex Ellis discusses how protests bring different opinions into the open and can foster a better informed citizenry. 1:15
Podcasts
-
The Bill of Rights
Do you know your rights? Professor of Law Henry Chambers explains the lasting wisdom of the Constitution's first 10 amendments.
-
Constitution Day
Get to know the Constitution: a document whose genius lies in its malleability. Historian and author Pauline Maier talks ratification.
-
We the People
America's Constitution stands as a monument to compromise.
-
A Slave's Perspective
Independence was a promise extended to landed white men only. Historic interpreter Hope Smith lays out a slave's perspective on freedom.
-
In Their Own Words
Old sources give fresh voice to slavery's story. Manager of African American programs Tricia Brooks explains how we know what we know.
-
No Master Over Me
A man purchases his enslaved family to set them free. James Ingram shares the tale.
-
Harvey Bakari on Independence for African Americans
Independence was not guaranteed for everyone in the nation's early days.
-
Thomas Jefferson on Religion
Thomas Jefferson's policy on religioius freedom rests on one ageless axiom: do unto others. Interpreter Bill Barker expounds.
-
Patrick Henry on Religion
Patrick Henry's passionate beliefs come alive through Richard Schumann's interpretation.
-
Thomas Jefferson vs. Patrick Henry
Bill Barker as Thomas Jefferson and Richard Schumann as Patrick Henry continue their debate on the role of religion in government.
-
The Rights of Youth
Children and the law: Historian Cathy Hellier and Law Professor Jim Dwyer contrast 18th-century and 21st-century juvenile justice.
-
The Liberty Pole
Tarring and feathering dissenters at the liberty pole was political theater in the 18th century, says Tom Hay, Colonial Williamsburg's courthouse supervisor.
History articles
-
Articles of Confederation
A governing document of the new nation, the Articles gave Congress power, but no way to enforce its requests.
-
United States Constitution
The work of 55 men, this founding document laid the groundwork for a new system of government.
-
Amendments to the United States Constitution
Explore the amendments to the United States Constitution. Can you memorize all 27?
-
Introduction to Colonial African American Life
Dig deeper into the everyday details of Williamsburg's African American population.
-
The African American Family
Bonds were fragile, since blacks were denied legal marriage, and members were separated when owners sold and traded parents and children.
-
Statute for Religious Freedom
Thomas Jefferson's Act for Establishing Religious Freedom first appeared in the form of a 1779 Williamsburg broadside.
-
Religion and Revolution
Some of the earliest dissent over England's established authority happened in religion's realm.
-
Religion in Early Virginia
The Virginia colony was not the bastion of religious freedom that later colonies became.
-
Courthouse
The home of law and order in the 18th century.
-
A Summary of the 1765 Stamp Act
A tax on paper goods rankles the citizenry.
Journal articles
-
Debating the Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights, so fundamental to the Idea of America, was quite controversial when written. Learn why it was under debate.
-
An Accidental Republic?
Did the Founders create a "republican form of government," or were they striving to make something different?
-
Slave Conspiracies in Colonial Virginia
When slave uprisings shook the white population, the backlash was stricter laws and harsher punishments.
-
"In Mind and Heart" with the Enslaved of Yesteryear
African American Interpreter Wali Brandon describes the importance of moving beyond an intellectual appreciation of slavery to an emotional understanding.
-
Deism
The question is still debated today: Was the United States ordained by Bible-believing Christians or Bible-doubting deists?
-
"The country wherein it hath pleased the divine providence to appoint our lot."
Learn about High Holy Day customs practiced by Jewish families during the early days of the colonies.
-
Cruel and Unusual
Prisons were often the first public buildings built in the colonies, but their function was very different than from today.
-
All That is Substantial and Beneficial in a Trial By Jury
Many of the grievances listed in the Declaration concern Great Britain's disregard for the traditional justice system.
-
A Man of Firmness
An early member of the often forgotten judicial branch, John Blair helped shape American laws from the bench. Justice John Blair and the Letter of the Law
-
"The Monstrous Absurdity"
Was Lord Dunmore justified in taking the gunpowder from the magazine due to rumors of slave revolt? Many colonists disagreed.
-
Upon Paine of Death
In the colonies, there were many ways to break the law and a variety punishments for doing so.
-
A Patriot, a Traitor, and a Bill of Attainder
A bill of attainder, a legislative method for assigning guilt outside of the judicial process, had a long history but was outlawed in the United States.
Books
-
America's Beginnings: The Dramatic Events That Shaped a Nation's Character
From the Lost Colony to the Bill of Rights, here are fifty dramatic events that shaped our nation's character.
Buy now -
Chapter 45: Shays' Rebellion
Economic depression sparks Massachusetts farmers to rebel and reveals the weakness of the Federal Government to respond.
-
Chapter 46: Constitutional Convention
The Great Compromise between the Virginia and New Jersey Plans gives birth to the Constitution.
-
Chapter 47: Ratifying Conventions
Federalists and Anti-Federalists engage in a war of words over the proposed Constitution.
-
Chapter 48: The Federalist
Writings by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay defend the Constitution against Anti-Federalist charges.
-
Chapter 50: The Bill of Rights
Initially opposed by some Founders, these Amendments guard against abuses in power by the Federal Government.
-
We Hold These Truths . . . and Other Words That Made America
"An entertaining and educational romp through Revolutionary history."
Buy now -
Chapter 8: Perfect Work, Imperfect Man
Alexander Hamilton's impact on the Early Republic was substantial, yet where some saw genius, others saw a tyrant.
-
Chapter 11: A Little Rebellion
Thomas Jefferson viewed the spirit of resistance as valuable to government; his opponents labeled him an anarchist.
-
Chapter 14 Excerpt: If Men Were Angels
In the Federalist papers, Madison argues that factions within government can help rather than hurt it.
-
Chapter 14 Excerpt: Congress Shall Make No Law
Although most Federalists opposed the Bill of Rights, Madison campaigned in 1789 on a platform of including these Amendments.
-
Chapter 24 Excerpt: We the People
One of only six to sign the Declaration and the Constitution, Wilson may have written the Preamble.
iCitizenForum links
Getting It Right
What problems did the Constitution solve and what problems did it create for future generations? Professor Carol Berkin and Justice Kennedy discuss. 2:43
When are constitutional amendments necessary?
Thomas Jefferson wrote, "Laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind." Sometimes, changes in our ethical views compel us to amend our Constitution.
Discuss topic on
From Property to Freedom
Historians Harvey Bakari and Ed Ayers discuss the evolving relationship between the American government and African Americans. 2:06
Should affirmative action programs be discontinued?
Affirmative action can restrict our individual freedom to do business with, hire, or accept whomever we choose in order to ensure more equality for disadvantaged groups.
Discuss topic on
In God We Trust
Colonial ministers Mayhew and Rush discuss the importance of a Christian government and nation. 2:28
Are we a Christian nation?
As a symbol of unity, our founders' Christian heritage exists in our Constitution but an increasingly diverse population expands America's religious philosophies and changes how we view our history.
Discuss topic on
Citizen, Know Thyself
Justices O'Connor and Kennedy talk about the relevance of the Constitution and the importance of understanding our system of government. 1:35
Is it fair to require citizens to serve on juries?
The Constitution guarantees the right to trial by jury, but not every American finds it convenient to serve. Often the personal demands of work and family are stronger than the duties of serving the common good.
Discuss topic on
Civil Disobedience
Justice Kennedy and Christy Coleman offer differing opinions on the value of protest. 2:29
When should citizens break the law to demand change?
Sometimes laws violate our core ethical beliefs. Since citizenship means taking an active role in self-government, some citizens have risked arrest to protest unfair policies.
Discuss topic on
-
African-American Interpretation
What was life like for African Americans in Williamsburg in the 18th century? Take a peek into the past with this slideshow.
-
Prison Reform
Line drawings and engravings of early executions, prisons, and punishments.
-
A Trial by Jury
Colonial Williamsburg photography from the Spring 2008 Journal
-
Pickpockets
Colonial Williamsburg photography from the Spring 2005 Journal
Interactive
Wallpaper
-
Preserving the sound
wallpaper
-
Muster
wallpaper
-
Bruton Parish Church
wallpaper
-
Winter windows
wallpaper
-
Capitol General Court
wallpaper
-
Fall arrives
wallpaper
Screensavers
-
Mr. Jefferson's Magical Maze
-
George Washington Interactive Portrait
Explore Charles Willson Peale's famous portrait. Learn the meaning behind items.
-
Name that Founding Father
Put your knowledge to the test - play the game where you try to identify four famous founding fathers based on clues from history.
-
The Constitution Colonial Word Search
-
Enslaved African-Americans
Explore the daily life of an enslaved family in colonial America.
-
Enslaved Farm Family of Two
Explore the daily life of an enslaved woman and her son in colonial America.
-
Pardon or Pillory
Historic Triangle
iCitizenForum
